The Viceroyalty of Peru, was established by a State, which was the political entity – which was established by administrative Spain on November 20, 1542, during its colonial period of American rule, which, in its greatest extent, it included the present territories of Colombia, Ecuador, Bolivia and Peru as well as those of Chile and Argentina, but, along the eighteenth century, and until the independence of those areas in respect of Spanish power, scarcely understood a little more of what today is Peru.

The conquest and creation of the Viceroyalty of Peru, was carried out with the arrival of the Spanish in the city of Cuzco in 1534, concluded the military conquest of Peru, led by Francisco Pizarro,

And began the development of colonial settlement in the area hitherto dominated by the Inca Empire or Tahuantinsuyo that since 1542, became part of the Viceroyalty of New Castile, later known as the Viceroyalty of Peru, and which established its capital in Lima, founded in 1535. Their area included over time the space between Panama and Chile, from north to south, except for present-day Venezuela, and east to Argentina, with the exception of Brazil, which belonged to the Portuguese rule.

The period from 1534-1544 was chaired by clashes between supporters of Francisco Pizarro and Diego de Almagro, the two partners who had joined in 1524, with Hernando de Luque, to carry out an expedition in search of Viru lands or Biru (Peru), which was news that spoke of the existence of great wealth.

Pizarro’s appointment as the first governor and the unequal distribution of benefits in land grants and titles between the two partners was a constant source of struggle, known as ‘civil wars’, which continued after the execution of Almagro, defeated in the battle of Salinas in 1538, and Pizarro, killed by Almagro in 1541.

The distribution of land and the Indians carried out among the conquerors of the encomienda system and the legal abolition of these with the enactment of the New Laws in 1542, remained open confrontation with the real power, represented by the second governor Cristóbal Vaca de Castro and the first viceroy Blasco Núñez Vela, who died in 1546, fighting with supporters of the task, who were led by Gonzalo Pizarro, who considered himself heir to his brother Francisco.

The president of the audiencia of Lima and third Governor Pedro de La Gasca got the peace of the Peruvian territory, bringing the official side most of the insurgents and capturing, in 1548, the brother of Pizarro in the battle of Xaquixahuana .

I. Theoretical framework

1. Definition of State

According to Quintanilla in his Brief Dictionary of Philosophy (1), says: The modern term of State, which begins to be used in the West since the Renaissance (1Maquiavelo) corresponds to the Greek “Polis” (the city as a political entity ) or the Latin “see pub” (public affairs).

STATE means “the set of social institutions whose function is to manage public affairs, that is, largely affecting the overall functioning of society.”

In societies bit complex state functions do not become carried out by specialized institutions, but by specific individuals (the head of the clan, for example), or by all members of the group (the Assembly of a Small Town) .

In more complex societies, while state power is theoretically in a person (absolute monarchy, tyranny) or a few (oligarchy), its institutions are institutionalized and differentiated from other social functions.

Also, Comte – Sponville in his Philosophical Dictionary (2) states that: The state is the political body that brings together a number of individuals (the people) under the same power (the sovereign). When the people and the sovereign are identified, the state is a republic.

Finally, we will refer to the famous Spanish philosopher Ferrater Mora with his Dictionary of Philosophy (3) does not explain, briefly, that the State has been the subject of philosophical reflection and in almost all great thinkers who, in particular since Plato have attempted to define its essence and its mission with respect to the individual and society.

The Orb Chanamé Peruvian jurist in his Dictionary of Political Science (4), literally, says STATE is a political organization of the society, which arises in the context of an economic system. Thus, the State designates a set of powers that a population in a given territory.

Gazar in the dictionary of politics (5) provides that the state is the set of people living in a given time in a territory, united by ties of various kinds (national, cultural, legal, etc..), And under a sovereign power that is common on all of them.

(1) Quintanilla, Miguel A. Brief dictionary of philosophy. Madrid, Editorial Verbo Divino, 1991, p. 84.

(2) Comte – Sponvile, André. Philosophical Dictionary. Barcelona, Buenos Aires, Polity Press, 2003, p. 199.

(3) Ferrater Mora, José. Dictionary of philosophy. Barcelona, Editorial Ariel, 1994. Tomo2, p. 1110.

(4) Chanamé Orbe, Raul Dictionary of Political Science: A – Z Concepts – Institutions – Characters. Lima, Editorial San Marcos, 1993, p. 91.

(5) Garzaro, R. Dictionary politics. Salamanca, Editorial Tecnos, 1997, p. 138.

These are fully-fledged state and are part of the international legal community. In
Restricted sense is synonymous with the sovereign power. Structure is endowed with power of a State at large. The set of three branches: legislative, executive and judicial.

The wrong way sometimes also applied the term state to certain communities living under colonial rule. Generally, this is a ruse to disguise the Metropolis to their colonies.

The term state was first used by Machiavelli in his book “The Prince” in the early sixteenth century (Renaissance).

In France used “Republique” to mean the same thing in England minted “Commonwealth” for the same purpose.

At the end of the term state prevailed.

Manuel Perez in his Dictionary of Directors (6), talk about the state, like this:

It’s legal, political, economic social and cultural development of the national community, in terms of reality and national project.

By virtue of its sovereignty becomes the country’s first legal person representative of the entire national community.

2. Definition of Viceroyalty

According to Tauro del Pino in his Encyclopedia of Peru (7), states that:

The Viceroyalty was a period of Peruvian history, during which he was pursued by a Viceroy appointed by the King of Spain.

He followed the Conquest, characterized by the Spanish penetration in the ancient Inca Empire, the Government implemented by Francisco Pizarro and the first civil war between the conquerors and Spain during which defines the concept about the greatness and complexity of the territories and peoples incorporated into the colony and it was decided to apply the Organization had been established in ancient Aztec empire.

He started the Viceroyalty with Order signed by Charles V in Barcelona on November 20, 1542, and the immediate appointment of Blasco Nunez de Vela (May 1, 1543) as the first viceroy, and comes to an end with the defeat imposed on the colonial armies in the Battle of Ayacucho (December 9, 1824), and the Capitulation, which as a result she had to sign the General José de Canterac on behalf of the prisoner Viceroy José de la Serna (40 ° and last Viceroy of Peru).

  We also have an interesting vision of the Hispanic Encyclopedia (8) on the viceroyalty:

It was the administrative and political hub of the entire organization Colonial, the Spanish viceroy in America are the main instrument that made use of successive sovereigns to assert real authority on those lands.

The Viceroyalty was conceived as an institution representing

(6) Perez Rosales, Manuel. Dictionary Management. Lima, DESA, 1982?, P. 87.

(7) Pine Tauro, Alberto. Illustrated Encyclopedia of Peru. 2nd edition. Lima, Editorial Peisa,
1998. Volume 3, p. 2261.

(8) Encyclopedia Hispanica. Barcelona, Encyclopaedia Britannica Publishers, Inc.., 1999, Volume 14, p. 304.

Supreme Spanish crown through which the government granted land to certain river called viceroys, whose powers were much higher than those ever enjoyed by any other royal official.

II. ADMINISTRATIVE STATE POLITICAL STRUCTURE OF PERU Colonial

Administrative Policy and Colonial Peru, it was not the projection of the mainland authority.

The Spanish monarchy was felt in all its effects, one could say that the tutelage of Spain ruled until at least the colonial territory. Sitting this principle, there were two types of political bodies – administrative: Metropolitan and Local Bodies.

1. Metropolitan Agencies: Those who worked in the same metropolis, Spain:

1.1 The King

As a Hispanic American colonies were an integral part of the territories of the Spanish monarchy, the king was the supreme president of all of them.

He was, in this sense, absolute powers, as this was characteristic of European monarchies of the time (except in England).

The King had the power to make laws, which resulted in royal decrees, royal orders, could declare war, conclude peace, to administer justice and to coin money.

His power had no limits other than those which could be contravening the provisions of which were ecclesiastical exponents repute because in all his acts printed the stamp of their religiosity and the full meaning of his Christian spirit.

In the course of three centuries of Spanish rule followed ten monarchs are grouped into two dynasties:

Habsburg Dynasty was a dynasty Austrian: Carlos V, Siglo XVI, Philip II, Siglo XVI, Philip III, Siglo XVI, Philip IV and Charles II Siglo XVI, Siglo XVI. Bourbon Dynasty was a dynasty French: Felipe V, Siglo XVII, Fernando VI, Siglo XVIII, Charles II, Siglo XVII, Charles IV, Ferdinand VII and XVIII century, Siglo XIX

1.2 The Council of the Indies

The Royal and Supreme Council of the Indies was established in 1511, but its final regulation took place only in 1524, as an agency to oversee and direct the interests of Spain in America.

The Indian board was empowered to issue royal decrees and actual orders, granted appointments to the various officials of the Colony, in the same way giving your consent for the appointment of church officials, attended the support of the Navy and directed his expeditions.

This body was the one who resolved, ultimately, all disputes that the audience rose to their knowledge, as well as airing the impeachment trial followed the viceroys. As the supreme organ is composed of:

A president, a chancellor, a recorder, eight directors, a prosecutor, two secretaries, and a reporter or writer

His authority was greater in scope and hierarchy of the viceroys, so that for about the status of political – administrative colonial land, sent on a regular basis, to visit those who invested with “great power”, supervised compliance with the rules and laws given by the Council.

2. Local Agencies

There were bodies that operated in the same colony to implement the provisions stemming from Spain, the Metropolis.

2.1 The Viceroy

The outline of the colonial political organization focuses on the person of the viceroy, who was the representative of the King of Spain in America, and had the following attributes:

2.1.1 Laws:

° Drafting and approving ordinances prepared by the Councils and other authorities of the colony.

· Write instructions that were to serve as standards to other authorities who play administrative role.

2.1.2 Governing:

V Dar laws foundation of towns and cities.

v Authority to order the sharing of indigenous lands.
v To exercise the supervision of public works.
v Intervention in the trades or auctions of marketable public office.
v Right to appoint and dismiss employees.
v public health intervention and the posts and post office.
v Resolve issues that may arise between the inferior and subordinate authority.

2.1.3 Economic:

§ Inspection of all revenue from the Treasury.

§ Promote the Crown loans and grants to individuals.
§ Inspection in the process of minting of the coin.
§ Search the increase of agriculture, livestock and industry.
§ Search the cancellation of smuggling.

2.1.4 Judicial:

The Demun (Municipal Defender of Children and Adolescents) is a service that defends our rights in cases of maltreatment or abuse.
The Demun works in the municipality of your district and are always willing to assist you.
Children, adolescents, parents, neighbors, and anyone who knows any cases of abuse.

This brief reference work is a small contribution to be supplemented later with new terms of the topic.

CIVIL ACTION:

Is the action that is intended to pursue civil liabilities arising
of the offense.

PRIVATE CRIMINAL ACTION:

Is that action can only be exercised by the victim of crime

CRIMINAL CIVIL ACTION:

Is that exercised by the Public Prosecutor’s office to prosecute a crime when there is no special rule on it.

ADMINISTRATIVE ACTIONS:

These are actions that are deployed to the attention of a case before the institutions acting in contravention

RECORD OF COMMITMENT:

A document which shows the willingness of a party to benefit the child or adolescent.

RECORD OF RECONCILIATION:

Is the document that expresses the manifestation of the will of the parties to the Settlement

FOOD:

It’s everything you need for sustenance, shelter, clothing, education, training and job training, medical care, recreation of the child or adolescent and pregnant mother from conception to the stage of post – partum.

SCORE:

Is the time in which the Ombudsman evaluates the case received and determines the action to follow.

IF:

It is a fact, situation or event that violates a right of children or adolescents, which notes the Child and Adolescent Defensría by verbal or written communication via the informant or that is detected by a member of the Ombudsman .

FAMILY PLACEMENT TEMPORARY:

Is the location of the child or adolescent in a family or a person who accept him and he will be responsible for temporarily.

COMUDENA:

Means the Municipal Committee for the Rights of the Child and Adolescent “is an advisory body to support local governance for the protection and promotion of development of childhood and adolescence.”

Conciliation procedures:

The conciliation procedures in the Ombudsmen for Children and Adolescents is an alternative mechanism aimed at solving family problems, with the participation of the defender to promote a voluntary agreement between the parties taking into account the overriding interest of the child or adolescent .

CONTRAVENCIÓON:

It is convention any breach of the provisions in favor of children and adolescents covered by the Code … … … … … … ….

OMBUDSMAN OF CHILD AND ADOLESCENT:

It is a service of the National Comprehensive works on local governments and public and private institutions whose purpose is shielded the rights granted by law to our children and adolescents.

Local Advocacy:

The Local Ombudsmen are operational units which perform local advocates in the region.

In the event that the Local Ombudsman having two or more local champions will be appointed chief counsel. These Defenders depend directly on the Regional Advocacy groups them together.

Throughout the country, there may be up to eighty Local Ombudsman, which will be distributed according to criteria of workload, territorial extension, communications facilities and efficient use of resources.

The amount of resources does not allow local ombudsmen in all cities, so has privileged those with a population of 50,000.

However, in cases of cities that do not reach this population, the Defenders should be moved to locations whenever necessary.

Local Advocates assume the defense of defendants who have no lawyer at the first performance of the procedure initiated against him and in any event prior to the completion of the first judicial hearing as may be cited.

Also, always assume that under the Code of Criminal Procedure, counsel absent for any reason and at any stage of the procedure.

Maintain defense to assume the lawyer appointed by the accused, unless the latter is entitled to defend himself.

Local Advocates are appointed by the Regional Ombudsman after a public competition and background.

The requirements for acquiring the position are: a citizen entitled to vote, possess a law degree and not be subject to any of the disabilities in incompatibilities for entry into public service.

Municipal Ombudsmen for Children and Adolescents – DEMUNA:

Is a municipal service in charge of protecting children’s rights within the jurisdiction of Local Government.

To fulfill this function organizes two types of activities: protection (through the handling of cases) and promotion (through the dissemination, prevention and child rights training).

Regional Attorney

The Public Defender is divided into 14 Regional Ombudsmen, one in each region, except for the metropolitan area in which there will be two.

Each of the Regional Ombudsman will be based in the respective regional capital.

The Regional Ombudsmen are responsible for the administration of the means and resources necessary for the provision of public criminal defense, in the regions, all those defendants who have no lawyer.

The Defenders are in charge of a Regional Ombudsman appointed by the National Ombudsman after a public competition and background.

His tenure will be extended for five years and may be appointed on, through competitive tendering, each time a new run for office.

The requirements for acquiring the position are: a citizen entitled to vote; have at least five years a law degree and not be subject to any of the disabilities in incompatibilities for entry into public service.

Among its functions is known, processing and settling claims submitted by beneficiaries of the public criminal defense, which is one of the main resources that enable the Public Defender reliably protect the quality of delivery of defense services .

Its specific functions are as follows:

To issue, according to the National Ombudsman’s general instructions, rules and instructions necessary for the organization and operation of the Regional Ombudsman and for the proper performance of local advocates.

Meet, processing and settling claims submitted by beneficiaries of the public criminal defense.

Monitor and control the administrative, staff performance and budget management of the Regional Ombudsman and the Local Ombudsman who depend on it.

Monitor and control the administrative operation of the Regional Ombudsman and local Ombudsmen in their care.

Report to the National Ombudsman’s budgetary needs and the Regional Ombudsman Local ombudsmen whom it is responsible.

National Ombudsman propose to the location of the Local Ombudsmen and distribution in each of the Defenders and other local officials.

Ensuring prompt access to the Regional Ombudsman and local Ombudsmen, as well as due attention to defendants and defendants.

Authorize the hiring of expert witnesses and the production of reports, by these professionals, if requested, the attorneys of the public criminal defense.

Receiving the nomination of stakeholders in the bidding process, setting the background to the Board.

Submit an annual report to the National Ombudsman, with details of the difficulties encountered in the operation of the Regional Ombudsman during this period, and proposals to address them in the future.

Proposing the regional tender.

Perform any other functions assigned by law and delegated by the National Ombudsman.

COMPLAINT:

It is the written communication that makes the defender to the nearest competent authority, the presumption of misdemeanors or crimes to the detriment of children and adolescents.

NO RIGHTS AVAILABLE:

Set of faculties, powers, attributes, inherent in the people, not subject to
waiver, transfer or transaction.

BYPASS:

Be understood by referral to any act by which totally or partially transferred Ombudsman’s attention to an instance where, authority or professional may have competition for their better treatment.

ARBITRARY ARRESTS:

It stops when a child or teenager without a warrant or without having committed an offense, or when there despite an arrest warrant has been more than 24 hours detention and has not been made available to the authority competent court.

EMPOWERMENT:

The official documents of the United Nations has proposed several English translations for the term “empowerment” means the empowerment and autonomy of women / female emancipation / empowerment of women / creation of conditions for full participation of women in society or for the full exercise of their rights or to the empowerment of women.

You may also be defined as: “seeking power in terms of each group of subjects.

Achieving the ability to make their own decisions and set priorities without abandoning their own cultural perspectives and ideas. “

In the case of women referred to their strategy as individuals and organizations to gain power (by themselves) individually and / or collectively, through participatory activities.

FILE:

Is the set of documents in the case of care proceedings. Each file may have also, if necessary, with documentation concerning the same made by the parties, institutions or authorities involved in solving the case.

INFORMANT:

Any person or institution who has knowledge of a fact or facts which affect or endanger the exercise of the rights of the child or teenager and puts it to the attention of the Ombudsman, regardless of whether relative or not concerned.

REGISTRATION OF BIRTHS Extemporaneous:

Is the regularization of the birth registration of girls, children and adolescents in the Birth Records of the National Registry of Identification and Civil Status.

CHILD ABUSE:

It’s all intentional assault or damage by action or omission to the child or teenager by their parents, siblings, relatives, teachers or others.

SUBJECT:

Be understood as relating to the duty rate is presumed violated.

Complaint under:

Is the right type of breach which can be reconciled as long as there are no legal proceedings pending or concluded on the same case, or constitute offense.

You can combine food, family placement provisional rules of conduct, possession, visitation, family violence, abuse, voluntary acknowledgment of parentage.

REGISTRATION TIME:

When a child or teenager and enrolled at an age appropriate time.

RULES OF BEHAVIOR:

Are rules or guidelines that are intended to safeguard the rights and obligations of NAS children and adolescents. These rules may be applied to the s parents and children and adolescents.

PROCEDURE FOR THE ATTENTION OF CASES:

Is the development of successive actions, aimed at solving a case.

ORIENTATION:

It consists of providing various information about general or specific, is not a stage of the procedure for dealing with cases.

EXTRAJUDICIAL SONSHIP VOLUNTEER RECOGNITION:

It is the voluntary recognition of the child is not acknowledged (signed) to the Registrar by the father or mother.

CORRECTION OF ITEMS:

Is the correct information in the birth of girls, children and adolescents registered in the records of birth of the National Registry of Identification and Civil Status.

Visitation:

The parent not living with their children have the right to visit, for which, by agreement of the parties set days and times of access.

UP:

It consists of the set of mechanisms that aim to regularly check compliance with the agreements reached at the conciliation report and record of commitment and protective due process,

Of the complaint made to ensure recognition of the rights violated.

TENURE:

It is the responsibility assumed by one of the girl’s parents, children and adolescents to ensure their full development when they are separated.

This right can also claim those who have a legitimate interest in child or adolescent.

The mother or father to deliver on holding their daughter or son does not lose custody.

VIOLENCE FAIMILIAR (VF):

The consolidated text – TUO of the Law No. 26260, although it has undergone several modifications, VF defined as: Any act or omission causing physical harm, psychological injury as abuse without threat or coercion, including serious and / or repeated, and sexual violence that occurs between spouses, Ex – Spouses, common-

Ex – common-ancestor, descendant, collateral relatives within the fourth degree of consanguinity and second degree, Who live in the same household, provided that no contractual or employment relationships, and those who have fathered a child in common, whatever that live together or not, at the moment of violence.

Also, the INEI, in its Household Survey 1999 on family life, tells us that the VF is: “Any act or omission by any family member against another member of the same, regardless of the physical space where occurs which harms their physical, psychological or sexual, which may cause injury or not, the freedom and the right to full development. “

The Ministry of Education states that:

“The VF is a set of interactions of power exercised by one or more members of the group to dominate, subdue and control other members located in a position of submission or dependence through physical aggression, verbal, emotional or sexual.

The VF is not a private matter or isolated forms a social problem that impedes the harmonious coexistence.

There may be periodically or permanently and establish itself as a dominant form of interaction in family dynamics.

In short is expressed by aggressive behaviors that fall on the most vulnerable members of the family, showing a balance of power among its members. “

Finally, we believe that the VF is any act or omission committed against women and children, by a family member, spouse, ex – spouse, person with whom they cohabit, or have lived and / or fathered children without matter where the events occur.

Physical damage, psychological, sexual abuse without injury, threat or coercion, including serious and / or repeated.

Introduction

In the development strategies of countries in Latin America and the Caribbean, international technical cooperation has always occupied an important place as a support and complement to domestic efforts. In this decade, a clear trend appears to be established to further emphasize this form of development aid compared to bilateral or multilateral financial assistance. This trend is confirmed, particularly in developing countries through the region that have managed to improve their access to capital markets, and for which development needs are more oriented toward areas that require more technical support large financial amounts. This is compounded by the decline in official development assistance and its growing conditions, so that technical cooperation is relatively more accessible.

Like other forms of development cooperation (funding, grants, economic cooperation, North-South or South-South), international technical cooperation evolves in their patterns and their instruments according to the central concerns that mark development policies in Latin America and the Caribbean in today’s post – cold war and post – macroeconomic adjustment:

• ideological confrontation is replaced by economic competition, technological and commercial
• knowledge and its use to determine progress productive activities rather than the abundance of natural resources,
• The State has to redefine its role in economic and social life as the private sector assumes more responsibility and becomes a determining factor in international competitiveness of the economy,
• the social deficit, not resolved by macroeconomic adjustments and the paradigm shift in development patterns, remains a threat to democratic stability.

In this context, from the viewpoint of recipient countries, three main factors seem to have an immediate impact on the design and implementation of development cooperation in general and technical cooperation in particular:

1. First, the expansion of development issues to topics diverse, complex and interrelated, such as poverty and environment, trade and technology, monetary stability and attracting foreign investment, privatization and competition. Complexity and impact on the demands multidisciplinary cooperation, different from previous years.
2. Secondly, the importance of adjusting the opening and modernization paradigms of national agendas and different levels of development of each country, rather than assimilate as universal models apply uniformly.
3. Finally, the increasing link, established by the donors, official development assistance and economic and commercial objectives, resulting in relief efforts where components such as FDI, technology sales, access to markets for goods and services are translated by “packages” of cooperation more varied content than in the past, and where the grant element becomes less important.

These concerns are already reflected in technical cooperation policies in Latin America and the Caribbean and in several instances donor cooperation, and presumably that will be consolidated further in the medium term.

In addition to these changes in context and objectives of technical cooperation received by the countries of the region, increase donor conditionalities and complicated, both in economic terms (market measures are required – as an environment friendly essential cooperation actions) and political (required minimum of governance and respect for human rights), or thematic (requires the introduction of the development concerns of women, environmental protection, combating drug trafficking, etc. .).

Although these trends are not unique to Latin America and the Caribbean, the experience of the region as both recipient and donor technical cooperation deserves to be examined and better known, especially in the field of international financial institutions ( IFIs), contributing to the region relatively significant volumes of resources in this area.

Finally, we express our gratitude to all those who in one way or another encouraged us and guided the development and completion of this document. It called upon sympathy for some clarification on the meaning of the above terms and present them.

ADDENDUM O ADENA

A legal document, signed by the cooperating sources and government agencies (the Ministry of Foreign Affairs – RR.EE.) as an appendix to the agreement or Letter of Agreement that allows modification and / or inclusion of clauses in that document, agreement of the parties.

NATIONAL ADMINISTRATION OF INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION

Linked to actions such as: coordination, planning, programming, management and negotiations for the care demands of foreign cooperation and the mobilization of resources to these demands for Development.

YEAR COVERED BY THE REPORT

Is for the year for which information is gathered. The ICD collects and presents information in the previous year, thus the “ICD 1995″, contains data for the year 1994.

SUPPORT PROGRAMS / O SUPPORT BUDGET BALANCE OF PAYMENTS (PBB)

The provision of assistance does not subscribe to investment projects or specific technical cooperation but cont3xto is provided in a program of development and broader macroeconomic objectives, or provide in order to support the position of the Balance of Payment of the host country and increase its foreign exchange reserves. This category includes in-kind assistance from non-food commodities and financial grants and loans to pay for commodity inputs. It also includes the resources allocated to public debt forgiveness.

Approval

It is a firm obligation based on the allocation or availability of public funds. The government of the country covered by the Report is committed to providing a specific amount of resources in specific financial terms and conditions for specified purposes. Approvals are considered made on the date of signing of the loan or grant. For certain special disbursements, eg emergency contributions, the disbursement date should be considered the date of approval.

ADVISORY

It consists in sending or receiving of technical or highly qualified professionals in specialties required to advise and transfer knowledge in the implementation of various projects.

EMERGENCY ASSISTANCE AND RELIEF (ERA)

The provision of resources in order to alleviate critical situations immediately and improve the welfare of populations affected by natural disasters or man. Food aid for humanitarian and emergency is also included in this category. Emergency assistance and relief usually is not related to national development efforts nor to enhancing national capacity. Although ODA is recorded as
Development – ODA, its focus is on humanitarian assistance and development cooperation as such.

EXTERNAL ASSISTANCE

For the purposes of the ICD, foreign aid is official development assistance (ACD), including emergency assistance and relief, and external assistance from NGOs.

OFFICIAL DEVELOPMENT ASSISTANCE – ODA

Is defined as those aid flows to developing countries and multilateral institutions provided by official agencies, including state and local governments or their executive body, whose transactions must take the following characteristics:

1. ODA provided with promoting economic development and welfare of developing countries as a primary objective.
2. The ODA has a concessional and includes a grant element of at least 25% (calculated at a discount rate of 10 %).

SANTIRAIA ASSISTANCE AND EMERGENCY RELIEF

It consists of the provision of resources including food aid in order to alleviate critical situations immediately and improve the welfare of populations affected by natural disasters or man. The central focus of this assistance is its humanitarian character.

FOOD AID

Provision of food, including subsidies and loans for the purchase of food for human consumption for development purposes. The related costs such as transp
ortation, storage, distribution, etc.; Also included in this category when they are part of a food aid program.

Official Development Assistance

Formed by the resources of official agencies (States, local governments, NGOs and autonomous government agencies) available to developing countries and multilateral institutions to promote economic development and social welfare in these countries.

HUMANITARIAN AID

Immediate response of international solidarity, upon the occurrence of disasters and / or emergency.

BACHELOR

American Title obtained after completing four years of college, equivalent to our undergraduate.

BANK MIUNDIAL

1. History:

The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development (IBRD), better known as the World Bank was created at Bretton Woods, USA in 1944 (July), began operations in June 1946.

At the beginning of its activities for the Bank assisted in the task of rebuilding Europe and Japan, trimmed in the Second World War. His current actions are aimed at reducing poverty and raising living standards of people by promoting economic growth and sustainable development financing.

2. Goals

1-Stimulating economic reforms that promote equitable and sustainable development and reduce poverty.

2-To take part in health programs, nutrition and family planning.
3-Protect the environment for economic growth and poverty reduction be sustainable in the future.
4-Develop the private sector and re-orienting government to those activities where it is more efficient.

The World Bank grants loans to members or public or private institutions that receive government guarantees interest rates that reflect the conditions of capital markets (7% in 1995).

The repayment term is 10 to 15 years and the grace period is 5 years.

The three member agencies are:

A. IDA: International Development Association.:

Created in 1960.

Objective. aimed at assisting developing countries poorer.
The credits come from special contributions from the more developed countries.
Amortized over 50 years. No interest will accrue, pay a small fee and have a grace period of 10 years.
Members: All member countries of IBRD can be a member of IDA.

B. IFC: International Finance Corporation.

Created in 1956.

Objective: To contribute to economic development in less developed countries through direct lending to the private sector.
Invest your funds in productive private enterprises in member countries.
To enter a requirement to be a member of IBRD.

C. OMIGI: Multilateral Investment Guarantee Agency.

Created in 1988.

Object: To promote direct investment in developing countries in mitigating the non-trade barriers that hinder such investment. Advises governments to promote foreign investment. At May 31, 1995, 128 countries were members. The World Bank lays emphasis on structural economic reforms. The reason is that they are convinced that the cornerstone of sustainable development and poverty reduction, is to redefine the role of the state and promote competition and market mechanisms.

3. Structure

The bodies of each country are the board of governors and the board of executives. The board of governors consists of one governor and one alternate appointed by each of the 178 member countries. The executive board has 24 directors. 5 appointed by the principal shareholders (USA Japon. Britain. Germany. France). And 19 governors elected by the remaining members. President elected for a period of 5 years and is responsible for administering the bank.

Directors, Managers and Vice President: There are three managing directors and 18 vice presidents.

4. Financing

The IBRD is part of the governments of 178 countries that signed the capital according to the number of shares. Recall that the equity determines the votes of each country. Current Capital U $ S 175 358 000. Members by countries, is paid U $ S 10.825 million. Its lending operations are funded by:

• borrowing in global capital markets.

• Capital paid for the partner countries.
• Retained earnings
• Repayment of loans.
• To increase capital, the World Bank requires 75% of the votes of all members.

4.1 Information on the World Bank in Argentina

History: Argentina, in September 1946.Tiene income 10 052 shares in the institution, equivalent to 0.71% of the total. His first loan to Argentina in 1961 was awarded 48.5 million for the purpose of helping to carry out a breeding program 2.600Km. roads, organized by the National Highway Division. World Bank funding was sporadic, due to macroeconomic and sectoral problems which crossed the country regularly. The credits were reactivated in 1986-1988, with some structural reforms.

5. Purpose of the resident mission

Objective: Strengthen dialogue between the World Bank and the National and Provincial Governments. Support the implementation and monitoring of projects financed by the Bank. Facilitate the exchange of ideas between the World Bank and NGOs. Disseminate strategies and World Bank policies to reduce poverty and promote sustainable development.

In fiscal 1995, The World Bank approved five operations for the total amount of U $ S 1.425 million. Includes programs supporting provincial reforms and the privatization of provincial banks. A loan for the education sector and a project for the municipal development fund.

6. They differ the International Monetary Fund and World Bank

There are differences between the bank and the fund. The principal one is that the former is basically a development institution, while the Fund seeks to maintain an orderly international system of receipts and payments. They have different purposes. So are their structures, funding sources, the categories of member countries that provide assistance, and even the methods which each applied to achieve specific goals.

At Bretton Woods outlined the main aims of the World Bank. In the late forties, the bank made its first loan to finance the economic reconstruction of Western European countries ravaged by war. Once this goal, took care to provide assistance to the poorest countries in the world called developing countries.

The main objective of the Bank is to promote, through increased productivity, economic and social progress of developing countries.

From the Great Depression of the thirties establishing the International Monetary Fund to solve financial problems. The member countries signed an agreed establishing, under which their functions were defined financial and monetary policy under the orbit of the Fund. Therefore, the role of monitoring the background is the same.

7. Funding sources

The World Bank is an investment bank, gets most of its resources in the market for which issues bonds (AAA rated), while a small percentage comes from donations from countries. The Bank is one of the largest borrowers in the international capital market.

The Fund is not a bank, yet have substantial financial resources from fees paid by its member countries. It resembles a credit association, whose members have access if necessary to pool resources.

8. Funding Recipients

The World Bank only lends to creditworthy governments of developing countries. The interest rate is higher than market interest rate at which loans are subject to the same bank gets, and must be repaid within 12-15 years.

The Fund provides financial assistance to all member countries. Interest rates are slightly lower than market and credit must be paid within 3-5 years.

8.1 Collaboration between the Bank and Fund

It is based on regular and frequent contact of economists and loan officers dedicated to working on
the problems of the country. Bank staff brings its longer-term perspective of the slow process of development and a deep understanding of the structural needs and economic possibilities of the country. The Fund, its perspective on the country’s immediate ability to continue making payments to your creditors and ensure that these will provide new financing for investments, and the way the country is integrated into the global economy.

9. News of the IMF and World Bank

In the 1994 Naples Summit in Halifax in 1995 in Lyon in 1996, the Group of 8 developed guidelines for initiating a process of review and reform the functioning of the IMF and World Bank (and other multilateral development banks .) The goal, in terms of the IMF is to give this institution the tools to be more effective in preventing financial crises that began in December 1993.

The initial guidelines for the review of the role of the IMF, were mainly developed by the Department of the Treasury of the United States, and then discussed at the Board and Interim Committee of that institution. Some of the measures that emerged during this process are already being implemented (eg as regards the flow of information between the IMF and member countries), others are in the process of discussion and analysis, especially at the level of Finance Ministers G.8, which express their points of consensus and recommendations by statements or reports to the leaders. The main ideas contained in the documents of the Group during 1997 in connection with the operation and monitoring of the international financial system can be summarized as follows:

• Assign a central role to the IMF in managing the system and crises that arise, and emphasize the importance of the reform process initiated in this institution so that it remains “an effective and relevant force in the evolution of global economy. “

• Support efforts of opening up financial markets and the promotion of free movement of capital.
• Improve the ability of the IMF to prevent financial crises through increased surveillance and greater emphasis on supporting healthy and transparent policies in both industrialized and developing countries.
• Provide the IMF of “adequate resources to fulfill their responsibilities in the international monetary system.”
• Strengthen international cooperation in banking supervision and international regulatory agencies (through the Basel Committee on Banking Supervision).
• Improve market transparency and management of risk situations and crises.
• Analyze the implications of “electronic money”.

It is striking that in this list of points the G.8 emphasized in the management of international monetary and financial system and the role of the IMF is missing a reference to the distribution of quotas and voting power within the IMF.

Based on the mandate of the Lyon Summit, the IMF and World Bank in September 1996 adopted the “Program of Action for Debt of Heavily Indebted Poor Countries” (Debt Heavily Indebted Poor Countries, HIPC Debt), consisting of his international support for the reduction of external debt to sustainable levels. In its implementation, it is expected that sustainability is available in three levels, which reached in the previous case were insufficient. In the first phase, the Paris Club provides a debt restructuring under the “Naples terms” (up to 60% reduction), other bilateral and commercial creditors provide comparable treatment and multilateral agencies are supporting the adjustment programs. If it were not enough to achieve “sustainability” in June, the reduction would reach 80% and donors and multilateral institutions would increase the support. The Bank established a “HIPC Trust Fund and allocated $ 500 million initial contribution to this initiative. The IMF will participate through a special facility extended structural adjustment. The Paris Club has agreed to go beyond Naples terms and offer reductions of up to 80% of the debt. The WB and IMF have estimated that the total implementation of the initiative will significantly reduce the debt of U.S. $ 5,500 million. In principle, this initiative could have access to 41 countries of which four are from Latin America: Bolivia, Guyana, Honduras and Nicaragua. G8 documents indicate that the implementation of this initiative is supported by the Paris Club, and that the allocation of resources of the IMF and World Bank refers to “an equitable distribution of responsibility” (“fair burden sharing “).

This idea of sharing the financial burden among industrialized countries is recurrent in the United States’ position within the multilateral financial institutions. As part of the “financial challenges” that have occupied the G.8 also included the theme of “fighting corruption and financial crimes, which reflects and complements the treatment of the issue of corruption in the commercial sector. The G.8 entrusted to the IMF and multilateral development banks, to “intensify its efforts to help countries combat corruption, including measures to ensure the validity of laws to improve the efficiency and reliability of the public sector, and expand capacity and institutional efficiency, since all these actions contribute to removing incentives and opportunities for corrupt practices. “We support and encourage international financial institutions in their efforts to promote good governance in their respective areas of competence and responsibility.” In this same vein, the G.8 recognizes the work of BM to improve the rules governing tenders for projects financed by the resources and the OECD in relation to kickbacks paid by companies to which established general guidelines for this “new action”, including, first, financial and technical cooperation from multilateral organizations listed above, and secondly, the official development assistance of members of the Group. These guidelines can be summarized in the following four points: The responsibility for development lies mainly in developing countries, the development must be sustainable, job-creating, equitable and respectful of the environment (“environmentally-friendly”), the concessional assistance should focus on the poorest countries, development assistance should be based on solidarity and an “effective burden-sharing” (“effective burden-sharing”), among all participants in the development process. In recent years, G.8 has introduced new elements in its policy development in comparison with the approaches of the Summits of Naples (1994) and Halifax (1995), which undertook a substantive work around reform of the multilateral financial institutions and in particular on the role of the Bank as a development tool. Indeed, beyond the “new” policy, which may represent an initiative for African countries, in conceptual terms, there is no change in the “development philosophy”, but rather repetition of patterns already known and fully applied in the multilateral economic organizations:

• trade and financial openness for growth,

• macroeconomic policies and conditionalities for accessing multilateral resources for any reduction or cancellation of official debt,
• preference for multilateral instruments (which allow the “burden-sharing”), rather than to bilateral programs,
• the interests of trade and technology companies, from donor countries in projects funded by multilateral resources.

The idea that, in terms of development aid, the quality takes precedence over quantity, remains dominant in policy, both bilateral and multilateral industrialized countries (idea generally presented on the grounds of “efficiency” of aid, accompanied by the conceptual guidelines listed, and a growing “graduation” of recipient countries according to their degree of development). Among the multilateral economic organizations responsible for implementing this approach, the BM is obviously the main instrument (along with other development banks), due to its financial weight and importance given by its main shareholders, ie G.8 members.

10. Recent IMF interventions

If yo
u go back to the fall of Thailand, we find the belief of some economists about what was happening, was merely a temporary crisis of liquidity and inconsistencies in the financial market of that country. Then, on the evidence of the depth of the crisis, the IMF showed a rigid dogmatic in its treatment becoming one of the decisive factors in aggravation. The IMF is increasingly seen as an operator of companies and banks (and even the government) of the United States, seeking to preserve their interest. We know that one of the classic recipes that detail the IMF applies economic openness is required from the countries that receive funding from the agency, which would facilitate the penetration of transnational corporations in markets and sectors that were closed to their actions. To this is added the inflexibility of their proposals regardless of the macro and micro situation of the nation that seeks its support. The recommendations are the same whether an African country beset by famine, a newly independent country (former Soviet) policies of privatization in the economy, a Latin American country beset by external debt .- The same seen in Asian countries, where they took into account that they were countries with large reserves and strong fiscal surplus high but with an insolvent financial system, or nations who are paying the price for inadequate projections for production and investment, or where there are other cases of insolvency strong financial systems that were carried by the mega bankruptcy estate stock speculation.

In the case of Asian countries should emphasize the role of IMF and World Bank. The annual report of July 1997, transcribed economic analysis of various countries, among them were those of Southeast Asia and Japan and is striking as the authorities of IMF and World Bank have warmly praised the economic policies followed by these nations Soon would show the error of those findings and the degree of economic and financial instability, distorted data and balance sheets of huge speculative bubbles, the favoritism of local groups, etc., in which these countries were involved.

The multipurpose medicine recommended by the IMF was a combination of severe monetary tightening tax, originally intended as a remedy to cut inflation and support the exchange rate of the country concerned and should be followed by reforms in the medium term financial system in the public sector and external liberalization, resulting in some cases not only misplaced but counterproductive. The central problems of those nations are made up of high inflation or the fiscal imbalance is more, the turmoil in capital markets, inefficient banks or the consequences of the devaluation that China decided in April 1994, are factors

11.

12. Final Thoughts

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

1.

2.

5.

6.

7.

8.

9.

10.

11.

INVESTMENT

General

The method of appointing Literacy under the symbol “PROESCO” (Promoters Settlement School), is based on four principles:

First: The sense of the word content is the set of phonemes (sound elements) that constitute it.

Second: Read phonemes is to issue conditioned reflex, vision or touch of his signs, to feel and understand the word.

Third: The phonemes of our spoken twenty-five (alphabet ontological) and thirty signs or letters that represent (spelling alphabet).

Fourth: The twenty-five of our speech phonemes are in these fourteen words:

Spider, knife, bottle, papaya, cup, house calls, ax, bullet, given pot, grape, church and elephant.

In the word ax, is the syllable has with the letter h does not represent any phoneme.

The teaching of these fourteen words, it means teaching these twenty-six syllables:

A-ra-na-na-va-ja-ga-RRA-fa-da-da-ya-ta-za-ca-sa-lla-ma-ha-cha-ba-la-da-ouie.

There is evidence that: the teaching of reading and writing of these twenty-six syllables, enables students to read any combination of graphic and phonetic writing any combination.

For this teaching, this primer indicate a series of activities: drawing, games and songs, that made all the features of the intellectual life and using only pencil and paper, habituate the ability to read and write.

STEPS EDUCATIONAL

FIRST TIME

MENTAL PREPARATION

First Step .- The Master presented the view of the students in view of the students in the classroom blackboard, the fourteen figures, placed strictly in this order:

1. CHANDELIER
2. KNIFE
3. CARAFE
4. PAPAYA
5. CUP
6. CASA
7. CALL
8. AX
9. BALA
10. DONE
11. OLLA
12. UVA
13. CHURCH
14. ELEPHANT

Then he will name shapes or chorus, until memorize these names in the order given.

Step .- Students syllabicate names in chorus first, then individually with rhythm and speech therapy (cadence), until each student can do it from memory, without seeing the figures. We call this syllabification memorized:

Sound law because it governs the activities psycho – teaching – (drawings, games, songs), which lead students (children or adults) to learn reading and writing.

NOTES:

1. The hyphenation of names and ELEPHANT CHURCH, will deliver only the initial vowels:

2. To ensure proper spelling, students are required to correct pronunciation of the syllables:

STEP

STUDY LAW Spelling Phonetics

First Step .- The Master shall, in view of the students on the board, las14 figures, then, under each one, write the name for fragmented into syllables.

(Figure # 2)

The best stimulate the hearing board, using colored chalk for writing syllables.

The students will match the individual coral syllabication of sound law, memorizing the FIRST TIME, by pointing out the syllables, with a wand, make the teacher or a student.

Students to read each syllable considered as a single whole, without distinguishing or name the letters. Say better: NO SPELL.

Example: CA – SA

Never allow students to read as follows:

Ca – a = ca that – a = sa: ca – sa

The Master students require knowledge of syllables, with the same rigor with which, once requiring knowledge of the letters of the alphabet. To confirm this knowledge, removed the figures of the board (Figure # 3).

And ask the students:

1. Syllables read in isolation.
2. Read the syllables in reverse order.
3. Read the syllables for a word, phrase or sentence.
4. That brought the syllables for a word, phrase or sentence.

Example:

ANA USA GAMARRA a belt.

For these activities used:

1. The syllables written on the blackboard in the order given.
2. The clipped syllables (Student material).

PLEASE NOTE .-

The comparison of the twenty-six syllables cut and shuffled with the syllables of the board or the card, entertains and facilitates learning. We therefore recommend this activity.

Before turning to the Third Time, students should know:

1. That, a, e, i, o, u are called members.
2. That R has the following accidents:

A. You sound soft and ere called when it is between two vowels. Example:
Ara, anger, now.
b. Has loud and r is called when it is between two vowels. Example:.
Rama, broken.
c. That was the doubles, so you get loud sound between two vowels. Example:
Parra, claw.
d. Never initial syllable is written with double ere (rr)

You should also know that the H is silent.

To learn to read print, students seek, read and stress the syllables of sound law in the pages of a newspaper. This will prevent spending primers.

You will overcome this time when students are aware of the four graphic forms separately for each syllable of the phonetic law (case sensitive, printing and hand).

THIRD TIME

Calligraphy LAW Phonetics

The students will teacher, observing the rules of calligraphy, exercise pulse first and then write the syllables of the phonetic law with lowercase letters.

By way of suggestion included a series of writing Tares.

The writing of the five vowels precede the writing of the other syllables.

Learning to write a syllable is considered a task.

When the Master sees fit, the student will also hand the syllables with initial capitalization.

You will overcome this time, when students write from dictation any syllable of sound law.

We recommend using the series of “WRITING NOTEBOOKS PROESCO.

FOURTH TIME

COMPOSITION AND WRITING PRAYERS

The composition and writing words, phrases and sentences, combining the syllables of the phonetic law, are the only activities that indicate progress in learning. For these activities they are pleasant, students compose and write words, phrases and sentences appropriate to their means, to express their thoughts, feelings and desires, or in connection with the grounds suggested by them, by the Master or contingencies local. We recommend the use of clipped syllables (Student material) to secure more learning.

Each student will prepare a BOOK OF RECORD AND READ, replacing the traditional syllabary.

The words, phrases and sentences, composed with the syllables of the phonetic law may be grounds for writing and illustration in the book.

(Figure N ° 4).

The Teacher, to guide the development of this booklet, will guard jealously students to practice spelling rules, especially those governing the use of the following letters:

C – Q – K – G – Y – X – W

Just show zeal for punctuation. This practice will avoid spelling bad students write what they read well, almost common defect of those who learn to read by memorizing a syllabary.

The Master will happily fulfilled by their work, when students read and write properly when given any word, phrase and sentence composed with the syllables of the phonetic law.

Then, students will know also enter any combination of phonics and reading any combination chart, although this is not Castilian.

Combining the syllables of the phonetic law Quechua words can be composed, Ticunas, Aymara, etc.. This literacy when students from these language groups.

Teacher’s Guide

The Method of Reading and Writing Literacy PROESCO was created by the Peruvian Maestro Alberto Herrera Acosta.

Is a simple and practical for the teacher to student learning because through fourteen words that are contained all the letters used in our language, we teach students to read and write simultaneously.

In this guide gives the basics and steps to follow, but remember that the effectiveness of a method depends on the interest and enthusiasm to put the teacher in the application.

BACKGROUND

First Truth .- The sensory content of the word is the set of phone
mes (sound elements) that constitute it.

Second Truth .- Read phonemes is to issue conditioned reflex, vision or touch their signs to feel and understand the word.

Third Truth .- The phonemes of our spoken are twenty-five (alphabet ontological) and thirty signs or letters that represent (spelling alphabet).

Fourth Truth .- The twenty-five of our speech phonemes are in these fourteen words: spider – blade – decanter – papaya – cup – cal – call – ax – bullet – since – pot – grapes – church and elephant.

In the word ax, is the syllable has with the letter h does not represent any phoneme.

The teaching of these fourteen words, it means the teaching of the twenty-six syllables and it is shown that reading and writing of these 26 syllables enables students to read and write through combinations to ensure the teaching – learning process.

Direct

FIRST PART

The teacher presented one by one the fourteen figures and are then distributed to the students and requests that the identified and appointed. Figures should be in this order:

(Pictures)

In this step, first working as a team (ie all together) and then one by one.

When you have memorized the figures in the established order, is written under each separate name into syllables. The church figure is placed only vowel in the figure of the elephant’s vocal and as follows:

(Pictures)

– To get the memorization of rhythmic syllabication should be placed under each syllable a point with crayon.

– As an exercise in observation, attention and memory are covering the figures one by one. When you have verified that the student can syllabicate memory without the aid of these, is on the board the small box like this:

– Parallel to this stage is the teaching of writing exercises to coincide co preliminary motor coordination, the font that teaches students the teacher may be Script.

If the teacher uses the writing “Script” can do the following basic exercises for mastering this kind of writing:

– If used for teaching cursive writing basic exercises to do for this typeface are the following:

– When you have achieved greater coordination in the lines that the students will write the vowels, writing each one is a task. The task is illustrated by the respective drawing.

The same system is used on all vowels respectively.
Before moving on to another task to verify that its students have mastered the subject:

With the education of five vocal method is reduced to ten words, with which the teacher is the Normal column (column call normal, to the syllables of the ten words placed successively below each other vertically) by typing it in the board as follows:

This Column Normal only be used for reading, so will read to students from the top down and bottom-up and will learn to form new words. For example they say warnings of a spider, then na razor and they will read tomorrow and then will train how to exercise new words and phrases and sentences.

How the teaching of reading and writing is simultaneously and has already achieved the learning of the five vowels, as an encouragement and as an exercise the teacher can make them write their names and surnames. Then continue with the writing of the ten words of PROESCO method, taking care that they are divided into syllables as follows:

After verifying that the student reads and writes the word to the dictation and recognize the syllables either be continued with the nine remaining words as follows:

To make teaching more fun can form new words by combining syllables learned. For example, if students already know how to write the words: a ra go na na jaaa – RRA ga fa we get the words:

But not only forms but we can separate words into phrases or sentences, for example, will form the first three words: ana win a bottle. ana grabs a stick

And so will increase the vocabulary as they learn the ten basic words.

– Will be given at this stage is only when correctly write any word or sentence.
- Observe strictly this rule: NEVER TAKE ANOTHER DAY WITHOUT YOU KNOW PRIOR KNOWLEDGE CHECK BACK.
- Experience has shown that the first part enables students to master the technique of reading and writing, natural induction following the development of this method.

METHOD OF RECREATIONAL ACTIVITIES PROESCO

Is enlivened this first part with the following activities:

A. – Using buckets in which they are the syllables of the ten basic words, with which they form new words or phrases.

B. – Using cards:

C. – Using the roulette

These three materials are for the collective work. It is the last page of the book are written the ten words and vowels. They should stick them on cardboard and cut them out. These syllables form the team of student work for mixing.

D. – is enlivened by singing and teaching is adapted to Huayno that says:

Of that green hill
sheep down
a shorn
and some without ears

SECOND PART

It is the combination of a letter from the Normal column with vowels to start this second part will begin with the first word of our method, ie the word spider. The process followed for each of the syllables is as follows:

1. Place the figure

2. Is placed beside the name and in column

3. It is reminiscent of the vocal students, the same that will be placing or writing.

4. Then the teacher will notice the syllable ra spider and a clear voice and act with re, with the i ri o ro, ru with u being the following:

5. The teacher and students will read them all many times as necessary to get his memory. First read all together and then one by one.

How the teaching of writing should be parallel, in their notebooks will make the task as follows:

First the drawing, next to the name into syllables separately. As we are working with the syllable ra locked her in a circle so that they realize where they come from the sounds and write the next line ra-re-ri-ro-ru, leaving the task as follows:

(These syllables must be written by the students until the end)

When students not only read but also write either to the dictates these new syllables, combining form new words (new knowledge) with the syllables of the Normal column for example:

Ra ca home and spider … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … .. face
spider to re (new knowledge) na razor … … … … … … … … .. Sand
ax has ri (new knowledge) na razor … … … … … … … …. flour
home ca ro (new knowledge) … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … … expensive

To address the potential importance to the fields of scientific and technological policies and the STS Education Part I of:
What is Science?

It could be understood as the knowledge system that varies, modifies or changes the idea or vision that may have real world around us, cultivating our culture and imagination.

Is an investigative process that gives the possibility of discovering new knowledge and phenomena and deepen existing ones, which give the possibility of transforming the world, is a source of wealth.

Provides the capabilities for analysis of their impacts on society, nature and self sociosistema surrounding valuation criteria and so on.

Is recognized as an established profession that is implicit in institutionalized their own culture.

What is Technology?

An integrative factors interacting with each other.

That implies the knowledge, skills, abilities, tools and so on.

But it also will present the economic, political, socio-cultural, professional, ethical and aesthetic values and objectives of the technology.

Could not fail to take into account the social aspect or factor as a carrier, multiplier and developer of this technology, because they are what will put into practice its innovative and distributors in all areas which means taking into account changes and transformations that could suffer the technology.

The STS is a multidisciplinary field, ranging knowledge of Philosophy, Economics, Sociology, Culture, Education etc. As these studies focus on three areas:

Ø Education
Ø Research
Ø Public Policy

Education: Sustainability in the possibility of teaching the STS
from Secondary and Pre-University Education

Research: Directed against traditional ideas and approaches from
in Philosophy and Sociology of Science.

Public Policy: Defending social regulation, democracy in decision-
decisions.

Building on these three directions we can understand that education is perfect, so that these three directions are harmonized among them that increase the enjoyment of the generality of citizens and their well-being than men to be trained to carry well necessary functions of society ensuring improvement to our woes as the environment, the Flora and Fauna as well as another factor that strikes us today, drought and water scarcity is so necessary for life, happiness and prosperity common cultivar in order in each generation the intellectual qualities and moral investigative contribute to general and gradual improvement throughout society, ultimate end toward which the entire school should be directed CTS studies, which highlights the public policy common interest of society.

In the CTS educational approaches involving the confluence of various proposals and initiatives, also includes preparing and educating people to be able to understand the science and technology in its wider context, multidisciplinary and social function.

On the other hand, the success of policies that promote public participation in decisions on science and technology presupposes a citizenry that attitudes and skills for democratic participation.

The formation of this new citizenship with a more accurate vision of the social role of science and technology therefore entails the renewal of education systems in order that young people develop the motivation, skills and interests by research on socially relevant issues, enabling them to participate responsibly and critically in the decisions that guide the development of science and technology.

Where education would be a very effective means to achieve these goals make them a transformative social force, which would enable the development of contemporary educational policies, and increase the capacity in science communication.

But you must also bear in mind, based on the actual practice of science and technology education is necessary new models of education which plays a key role, the selection of content and that these take into account the issues of most relevance and social importance and where methodological strategies established by educational institutions are geared towards the encouragement of vocations in science and technology, research aimed at capacity building for public participation.

Concluding CTS approaches in education are sympathetic to the aims of education in values, both ethical and aesthetic and all those that correspond to the formation of young people.

In fact is crucial to educate the general public to better understand the technology that surrounds him, so that every citizen can be more free time to think and criticize the technological path that is proposed for society and education .

Understand that any field of research must to take into account the following:

Ø Links and roles in society CTS
Ø role played by the scientific community in terms of values and interests
Ø Relationship with other disciplines or science
Ø High level of commitment that must have the scientific progress in terms of society
Ø Do not do science for evil but for development
Ø Multidisciplinary approach to science
Ø Take into account the interests motivations future prospects
Ø The application of social and economic
Ø Wealth Science Technology = = = Social Welfare should be thought of scientists and researchers

The importance of science policy and technology education within the perspective CTS approach includes having this very controversial issues.

Your treatment in education is possible that it should provide a field of new and promising research for the preparation of teaching for the technology to include connections to science and society in particular, thus broadening its vision.

Do not easy to analyze all our radio technology framework for action within the perspective of the CTS, because it presupposes examine our own values, beliefs and ways of life, because the commitment to this idea requires us and implies a spirit of participation social, which is not exactly comfortable but obstenciblemente and necessary if, in due course, we are forced to walk through alternative paths of technological development.

The need for knowledge and the development of technology has created serious problems in educational institutions, regarding the conservation, restoration and transfer of knowledge as a result of a new student profile, subject to constant change and transformation of its environment.

It is therefore necessary to cope with social situations that require a greater demand for education, which requires intensive training to assume and implement the new activities that cause the increasing technological development and skills have better qualified that as a result of rapid change, they quickly become obsolete.

To meet this growing demand for studies, it is necessary to have institutions that, without losing its traditional academic and scientific character, are able to provide a flexible and clear response to this new type of student that needs a constant information and updating and has serious difficulties to attend regular schools conventional university.

In order to meet this need, in the early 70′s, the world begins to become important this type of higher education, thanks to the work carried out by the Open University in the United Kingdom which in some thus served as a guide and model for other institutions around the world.

The birth distance learning facilitated by the needs of a niche market with ongoing training needs, as well as advances in communication technology and supported by major advances in the field of education which breaks down two constraints in traditional education: space and time.

Keegan (1980) [1] mentions that the main theorists of distance education agree that the characteristics of this innovative teaching system are as follows:

V physical separation between teacher and student,
v Organization of learning through an educational institution
v Using technical means to relate to teachers and students and convey the contents of the course
v Provision of means of two-way communication to allow the establishment of dialogue between teacher and student.
v Ability to establish casual encounters or socializing with didactic purposes.
v Establishing an institutionalized model of education.

These features of the method of distance education can be mentioned that the dialogue is their main means of communication, the teacher becomes a facilitator, providing an opportunity for information to flow freely, unlike traditional education, where the student becomes the main character, changing from a passive person to be independent. (Market, 1999) [2]

In addition to the benefits of educational institutions on the reduction of costs, capacity, enrollment management, time savings, number and presence of teachers, added this to the evolution of education in terms of technology and as the progress of the classes online. (Eastman, Owens Swift, 2001) [3]:

The teacher is no longer the main part of the teaching-learning process but it is still an important part, because through its practice will be raised student performance by transforming the power of the teacher of “The Sage on Stage, in A Guide behind the scenes. ” (Gibson, 1996). [4]

Today educational institutions have led to the active interaction of these two characters (student-teacher) (Webster

Act No. 1 “Opening” Navil: The situation is clear and concise, making a paper showing the historical importance of migration on culture, society, social psychology, economics and customs of the Dominican people.

It really seems very difficult to do, something that amused our esteemed professor “Salvador Mars,” the important thing is to learn, learn and discern, as the famous philosopher Frederich say `s Nitch, the problem is scarce educational resources given to us and especially the poor access to information that will help expand the accuracy and especially the analysis.

Today we are again here, before an audience of peers, that every day we get together, interact and even support, the truth does not make me happy but not unhappy, is that we have taken our effort and creativity, to achieve an exposure model and creative documentation and easily understood.

It is a fact that to achieve this we had to work as a team, which has allowed us to know our strengths and weaknesses, but ultimately the way we were able to match in a way that reflects our conduct, which in turn is reflection of all the migration process from the time behind the “Asian” crossed the Bering Strait and the Polynesians, came from the Oceanic Islands.

Please, open your minds and spirits, to experiment with us, a journey of history, culture and customs, which not only allow us to strengthen our theoretical knowledge, but also of what the Dominican people.

Act 2 “Body of the skit”

Status: Merlin nervously waiting in his living room to the members of the group, which arrived to the last rehearsal before the presentation made at the Lyceum.

Merlin: (Nervous, moves from side to side). What about the boys not coming, it will be time, and do not come, I work there, one has no time for anything, even the boyfriends I’ve forgotten. (At this time knock on the door, she approaches the door to open it).

The group: (knock on the door, making noise and fanfarrea, the man loaded the model which is placed in a place visible to the public, politely greet between claims and ridicule).

Selineth; (Altered, raising his voice and hands to his teammates) I, I will not do so, I have a blank mind, I do not remember anything, I’m very upset, it’s crazy. Because Salvador always puts us to do these jobs, better Speak your Marilainy.

Marilainy: (With a mocking effect) This is crazy, if you’re spoiled as well if you do not know anything but I am than you. Besides which has been prepared are you, what happens is that these very nervous. (Being over and hugs her.) Do not worry, everything will be fine serenade.

Emilio: But you Selineth happens, you know everything, take a deep breath and try to focus, to do the last test, you know that Salvador is quite strict and we have be in front of all our comrades, which will be very complicated.

Daniel: You know, I’ve heard that it is best not to rehearse before a performance, because all you miss one, maybe it’s best to sit here and talk has been talking a bit, what you think Navil.

Navil: No, it is best Selineth calm so that she feels safe to expose. Sellinet, that you do not remember …

Sellinet: From the beginning, there was nothing, I have a blank mind, for example, which was the first migration I face the Dominican Republic …

Rebecca and Yolaini: (Speaking at the same time) The Native Americans of Mesoamerica (look and laugh).

Rebecca: First came that of the Amerindians came from Mesoamerica and then that of the Polynesians, who were added as the source of the Tainos and Caribs, who was our ancestral and native breeds.

Yolaini: Yes!, Sellinet remember that you should try to migration, not only from the point of view of the various diasporas that were admitted to our island, but the influence they have had in our way of being and acting as Dominicans.

Francisco: It is important to remember also that the second great wave of immigration was the result of the discovery of 1.492 and the subsequent process of conquest.

Sellinet Remember that Christopher Columbus discovered the island on December 5, 1492, in the final days of his first trip to “the Indies.”

Columbus and his colleagues found that the island was inhabited by a large population of friendly Taino Indians (Arawaks), who welcomed the explorers.

Columbus established a makeshift settlement on the north coast, near the present city of Cap Haitien, which he named La Navidad (being December 25).

He used the remnants of the caravel Santa Maria, who had struck against a coral reef and foundered.

The land was fertile, but more importantly for the Spanish was the discovery of gold that could be achieved by barter with the natives, who adorned themselves with jewelry, or removing it from the alluvial deposits of the island.

Mary: It is important to consider migrating to the call Hispanyola Spanish, because the trait social change, culture and economic, remember that when the Spanish came in the island had an estimated 600,000 Tainos. The forced labor, abuse, diseases against which Indians had no immunity, and the mestizo population growth all contributed to the elimination of the Taino and their culture. Already by 1548 the Taino population was reduced to approximately 500 people, and in 1550 only 150 Indians lived on the island.

The consequences were profound.

The need for new workforce for the growing crop of sugarcane forced importation of African slaves beginning in 1503.

Since 1520, only used the labor of African slaves.

Daniel: So the third great migration was caused by the cultural and physical destruction of the Taino people by the Spanish and other Europeans who came to the island

Emilio: You’re right, the lost labor of the island, both the Spanish and the French who began to colonize the part of Haiti, began bringing African slaves to replace the extinct Taino.

Rebecca: So, what say we Taina is fake blood.

Yolaini: Do not think so, because even though they were almost exterminated, the Spanish, created a mixture from the beginning of colonization, so that the blood of the Taino still remains in us, especially in regions such as San Juan de the Maguana.

Selineth: But that has to do the migrations of Native American, Polynesian, Spanish and African, with the development of the Dominican Republic, El Salvador and think of course the boys will understand their meaning.

Emilio: If you do not realize that the history of racial and cultural migrations have led to a new cultural product that is logically the Dominican, I really need help. (Laughing hard)

Marilayni: Everything is interrelated, look here do not have a defined color, we lost the heritage of the Taino customs, that despite some who say we do not believe they exist.

Rebecca: If there are, for example believe that Yucca is a Taino heritage, truth.

Navil: Food is a good example of the influence of migration, whether they realize our food has several origins.

The Casabe Cassava is the product of which is our Taino heritage, but in our modern diet Rice is a product of Asian migration in the mid-twentieth century, replaced the corn that was a legacy of the Amerindians came from Mesoamerica.

Mary: That’s right, but also the Asian migration mid-twentieth century, a product of World War II and accepted by the dictator Trujillo, to the Japanese to come and improve certain agricultural production processes change one of our more dishes indigenous heritage of the Spanish culture, as is the “Stew.”

Navil, Rebecca, Sallineth, Marilayni and Yolaini: (At the same time and with a look of admiration, addressed to Mary) Does Sancocho

Rebecca: Explain yourself, because that is not found in the investigation.

Mary: Yes!, What happens is that we investigate both remember that we left things out, but until the “Stew” has evolved to migration.

The origin of Sancocho is the “rotten pot” Spanish, who come t
o the Island adapted to find new spices, vegetables and tubers such as cassava, then to enter the African and with it the yam, malanga and other tubers Finally in the mid-twentieth century, the Japanese have a habit of frying the meat and then add them to a soup or broth, this was the last amendment was done to the Dominican Stew, which is the fusion of European-Spanish- , Taino, African and Japanese.

Daniel: (With a mocking tone) Well, then we are really a mixture of flavors such as Stew. But which of migration will be affected most, the Amerindian, European, African or Asian.

Emilio: I think the greatest impact on our population density, economic, sociology and culture, is the African in the early stages of colonization and loved and hated in our link with Haiti.

Rebecca: As well, I do not understand what you mean, Emilio.

Emilio: Well, nun, history tells us that there have been six large migratory waves of Black Africans, West Indians and Haitians:

1) directly from Africa, occurred at the time of the colony. These migrations begin in the early years of the sixteenth century and continue almost until the eighteenth century.

The myth of the scarcity of black labor, warmly supported by Hispanics at all costs, does not withstand the most cursory analysis of historical sources.

From the first half of the sixteenth century the black population was so large and the Maroons swarmed all over the island with so savvy that the Spanish crown was forced to give instructions to the authorities of the colony with to crush the rebels.

The abundance of African slaves deserved that Fernández de Oviedo (1959) said that Spanish was the mirror image of Africa.

2) migration of fugitive slaves from the French colony of the western part of the island, consisting generally of black fugitives who escaped from the rigors of their masters, and that fed the Spanish colony since the early days of establishment of the French on the island.

These slaves came directly from Africa, and in some cases they even form communities such as San Lorenzo de Los Mina, who is now district or sector of the city of Santo Domingo.

3) those coming from other parts of the West Indies, especially from the minors, already dominated by English, French, Holland, etc.

More modern, and in the Republican period, the influx of blacks to Santo Domingo continued in large numbers. These include:

4) trafficking in black workers from the British West Indies in the first third of this century to work on the sugar plantations of the east of the island, and whose descendants are now known among us under the name of cocolos.

5) immigration of former American slaves, driven by Haitian President Boyer from 1822, when it gains control of the island. These immigrants took up residence in Puerto Plata and Samana Peninsula.

While immigration concluded soon, the descendants of these former slaves are now an ethnic and cultural well-defined and are subject to interest from several American anthropologists.

6) the large imported labor from Haiti, and whose flow is continuing, which is incorporated in large part to the Dominican population, and legally or illegally.

All these migrations have contributed greatly to the various processes of acculturation in Santo Domingo operated since the early days of slavery.

Navil: I agree with Emilio, I think the incidence of black is very high in our culture, rather than Taina or even Spanish, which I think leaves us with the language.

In addition to Stew, Dominican cuisine and dishes containing products of African origin.

The former include pigeon pea, yam and melts. Typical African dishes seem to be the mofongo, prepared with green bananas and cocola from the kitchen, the fungi and callaloo.

A common drink among the black slaves was the juice that comes out of sugar cane juice.

Of the cocolos descendants of black immigrants from the British West Indies we are certain entertainment as practiced by the buloyas or Guloyas and Momis, both from the eastern city of San Pedro de Macoris.

The former, according to the more widespread, are groups of masked figures, although very degraded, scenes from the biblical battle between David and Goliath.

The second is a remnant of the English tradition of Mummer’s Play, brought to the West Indian Islands by the British colonizers, plays that were staged at Christmas.

The Momis, by Martha Davis, they look carnival where African influences are apparent, especially in dress and behavior of its members.

Some playgrounds practiced until recently have been reported by the investigator Veloz Maggiolo as of African origin. They are the fufu, made up of a large button and a thread that goes through two holes in the button, the castanets of sticks, the speaker, made a match box and the “box”.

The African influence on Dominican language is not very significant, but it is still possible to trace many words imported black slave and have entered the popular lexicon. Much of these words is common to other West Indian countries, like Cuba and Puerto Rico.

We cite, among others, the voices Bemba, bachata, banana, Quimbamba, añangotarse, etc.

Mary: Another custom which comes from the African migration and especially the Haitian is to clean the house with plenty of water, this comes from the habit of “voodoo” religion practiced by the peoples of Africa and therefore of Haitians. They have a habit of once a week make a clean home or ranch, to expel the evil spirits that might have been introduced during the week, the women pour water that leaves adding mystical properties, that we do, as in other Latin American countries is not customary to clean the houses with the amount of water and on special days such as Thursday or Saturday as here, but in Haiti and countries with African descent, with voodoo practices, is very common and characteristic.

When we clean the house without meaning we are practicing a voodoo ritual, from African culture.

Marilayni: Yes! That is a confusing history of migrations that formed what is now the Dominican Republic.

Yolaini: And that is only the beginning, because part of why we must speak of emigration to the Dominicans have done in the course of time as their reintegration into social changes also led to this is the case of the famous Dominican York. “

(This last sentence agringado settled and raising his voice).

Francisco: It’s true, you know that throughout the history of the Dominicans have migrated more than 2.5 million overseas, mainly U.S., Central America, the Caribbean and in recent years the United States.

Daniel: There is yes, we too are wanderers and we are going to wander the world, but the fact that most certainly gave me during the research was that while in U.S. Men and Women Dominicans migrate in the same proportion 50% and 50% for Europe migrate to 80% of women and only 20% of men, a woman so angry that you … Europe. (Seeing Daniel Emilio and sarcastic and mocking way).

Rebecca: Well, the economic contribution that migrants make to the country Dominican is huge, really only in 2005 reported more than $ 2.900 million dollars from family remittances from Dominicans living in the U.S. and Europe.

This amounts to more than 40% of budget revenues and expenditures of the country.

Marilayni: I like hanging out with Dominican York, are so good for gifts.

Mary: No one likes to give gifts, they have also imported a number of ideas and concepts of the United States that are quite visible, like I was reading through them in the Dominican Republic there is a “syndrome Psychosocial”, called ” Compare syndrome, “which is based at the Dominican York come, they want to show off with jewelry, Jeeps, Holiday Gifts.

This has caused all want the same things they practically are competing to see who looks better and has better things, which unfortunately is counterproductive, because we spend too much on unnecessary
things, truth Marilayni … (in a mocking way and seeing straight ).

Selineth: Well, are really nice the stories of migration and food, but I was more concerned about the concepts that come with the happy issue, though I do not understand the difference between migration, immigration and emigration.

Merlin: Well, today if we accusers!, As you do not remember such basic definitions.

Selineth: But I told them that the mind was clouded and I can not remember anything. Also, when I’m facing Salvador I get more nervous than normal. (With exaggerated expressions of crying, hugging one of the girls).

Emilio: There Selineth, if I want to expose that and your the Storyboard.

Selineth: (Raising his voice), you’re crazy, if I explain the model, there if we burn all.

Emilio: (Looking at Selineth quietly) I’m going to remember, “Migration” is any movement of population from one geographical location to another geographical point and vice versa.

The migration can be divided into two: 1) Immigration is the permanent or semi-permanent movement of human populations from other countries in the destination country. An immigrant is someone who intends to reside permanently, not a casual visitor or traveler.

Nor does it refer to the mass migrations caused by the consolidation of the nation state, nor to movements within the same country, 2. Emigration is a phenomenon inherent to it, since it refers to leaving the country of origin.

Daniel: (Pulling a folded paper from his pocket), Let me see, if he’s right, I wrote here the concept of Emigration, just in case we forgot, it says that migration is:

Action emigrate: to leave one’s own country or region to go live somewhere else.

The reasons that push people to emigrate from their countries tend to be complex and diverse.

The immediate causes can be economic (seeking a better standard of living), political (personal persecution, armed conflict, repression campaigns, lobbying or ethnic) or environmental.

The countries with most emigration today are often those belonging to the so-called Third World or developing countries.

Sellineth: And the rate of migration, emigration, net immigration, as defined and remind me of the examples we could find … .. Please Emilio, you remember …

Emilio: Well Sellineth, but for this we use this piece of paper where the examples are described: (The bottom will be written on a card, to teach Emile Sellineth).

RATE OF IMMIGRATION .- The immigration rate is the number of immigrants arriving at a destination per 1,000 inhabitants of the place of destination in a given year.

Number of immigrants 19 135

K = —– x ———- x 1000 = 0.5
Total population 38832.000
destination

“In 1987, the rate of immigration in Spain was 0.5 new immigrants by

1,000 (counting only legal immigrants )”.
MIGRATION RATE .- The migration rate is the number of migrants
out of area of origin per 1,000 inhabitants of the area in a given year.

Number of immigrants 9418

K = —– x ———- x 1000 = 0.2
Total population in 38832.000
area of origin

“In 1987, the rate of emigration from Spain was estimated at 0.2 per 1,000 Spanish.” For most countries, there is no accurate information on emigration, only rough estimates.

NET MIGRATION .- The net effect of immigration and emigration on the population of an area can be expressed as the increase or decrease in the population.

Net migration rate .- The net migration rate shows the net effect of immigration and emigration on the population of an area, expressed as the increase or decrease per 1,000 population of the area in a given year.

Number of immigrants – the number of emigrants x K =

——————–
Total population

19135-9418

——- X 1.000 = 0.3
38832.000

“In 1987, Spain experienced a net increase of 0.3 people per 1,000 population due to migration.” Ireland was a net migration rate of -8.7 per 1,000 inhabitants in 1987 (ie, a net migration of 8.7 persons per 1,000 population in Ireland).

Merlin: Enough is enough, I think all easily understand the different types of

rates, but Selineth!, it is necessary to understand or explain it again.

Selineth: Nerve am, I’m not stupid!, Of course I understand, no problem, I think with this summary I will explain to Salvador and the boys my part, but remember that this is a work in group and we all know that information, so if I lock me or forget me do not hesitate to go to my rescue.

Rebecca: Even I! I am quietly would you rescue Selineth.

Daniel: You know that’s why we are together in everything. (Watching her roguish eyes).

Emilio: Well boys it’s best that we prepare, collect everything to go to high school.

The group: start to pick up their backpacks and fix the model to move and place for the public about the look better, some put the uniform shirt and many are arranged a little hair.

Act No. 3 “Closing the Sociodrama”

Merlin: Creativity is the main variable that encompasses the migration process, as a result, we have several options to generate ideas, arguments and especially shares.

As you have been able to observe, listen and feel, migration, miscegenation and ideas have been the breeding ground for a culture as individual as the Dominican, which has evidently contributed their bit to world culture, both in the ideas, literature, food, drink, music and dance.

The Dominican is a product of that beautiful mixture that has given birth to men and women beautiful and sturdy that can face the future both in this island and beyond.

In this part of the group closes the first part of his statement, then we will have the following:

1. Generic and specific concepts of migration, in charge of the student Selineth Abreu.

2. Explanation of the Model representative of migration from the Dominican Republic by Emilio.

3. Round of questions and answers provided by you. Y

4. Bifolia delivery of letters.

This article aims to describe a simple way with chronological history of the world organization of humanity after the Second World War, identifying the key issues that led to its creation and concluding if they have finally been able to efficiently the objectives for which they are created.

HOME OF CONTENTS

A terrible consequence of what meant the Second World War, mankind had the need to rethink the best way to make a living and how to avoid future repetition of this terrible event.

That is why in this article, we’ll talk about some of the major institutions and agreements, as history has enabled it chronologically, which international and global impact, have been created by the leading nations world in order to achieve the common good of all humanity.

We then speak of organizations that involve countries on 5 continents, and do not talk about regional integration in specific, as are free trade agreements or the European Union.

During the Forties

In this period of history, there is the creation of key organizations today in order to promote the common good.

First, we mention that in July 1944, began operating the International Monetary Fund and World Bank.

Two bodies established in the United States.

The International Monetary Fund was created primarily to promote international financial health and avoid a future economic downturn, as happened during the decade of the 30′s.

In addition, the World Bank was created to promote the reconstruction of Europe but is currently one of the agencies that promote the eradication of global poverty.

However the importance of these organisms as sources of financing to countries that need financial help, there are isolated from these organisms countries like Cuba and North Korea.

In second place, we will mention three global agencies of great significance created during the year 1945.

First, on October 16, 1945 establishing and Agriculture Organization (FAO: Food and Agriculture Organization), whose main objective can be summarized as follows, through its motto:

“Helping to build a world without hunger.”

In the same year, on October 24, 1945, establishing the United Nations organization whose main objective was to create a forum for all nations of the world through which to solve global problems between nations, making it the most important forum for global diplomacy whose main objective is to preserve peace in the world.

Finally in that same year, on November 16, 1945 establishing the Organization of the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO: United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization), whose creation was the reason for push global peace and security through education, science, culture and communications.

The United Nations is composed of all the nations of the world except two special cases or exceptions which is not represented in that forum, those exceptions are because the Vatican is an observer only, and moreover the territory of Taiwan, which is considered a rebel territory of China.

Third, within this decade in question, October 30, 1947 establishing the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade

(GATT: General Agreement on Tariffs and Trade), which is currently administered by the World Trade Organization (WTO), the latter coming on stream on January 1, 1995.

The purpose of this agreement was to promote world trade by reducing tariffs on international transactions, monitor trade policies of member countries, and serve as an arbitrator in international commercial disputes.

Currently, within the major countries that are not yet members of this agreement are Russia, Iran, and Iraq.

Finally, there is so momentous in the decade in question, the issue of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights on October 10, 1948, which is a declaration adopted at the United Nations framework to collect and defending human rights considered basic:

The right to freedom, equality, fraternity, and non-discrimination.

However that statement is within the United Nations as mentioned, is not mandatory implementation in member countries, is why it is possible that countries like China and Cuba, which are members of the United United have constant demands on human rights now and in the past.

During the fifties

First, in this decade is noted that the July 29, 1957 establishing the International Atomic Energy Agency, which is a related organism to the United Nations Organization, which aims to promote the contribution of atomic energy for peaceful purposes, health,

And prosperity throughout the world.

Also, as a response to fears of nuclear use for military purposes.

In this way, it seeks to ensure that assistance in nuclear power is not used for military purposes by establishing nuclear safety standards and environmental protection, helping member countries through technical cooperation activities, and promote the exchange of scientific information and technical information on nuclear energy.

Currently, this body belongs to countries like Afghanistan and North Korea.

In the second place within this decade, it is important to mention that the December 1, 1959 establishing the Antarctic Treaty, which aims to freeze the territorial aspirations of the signatories do not imply the renunciation of sovereign rights that may arise later on.

Regulates the relations between the signatory states in matters relating to Antarctica, affecting the territories, including ice shelves located south of 60 degrees south latitude.

Establishing this form Antarctica should be used for peaceful purposes and research in Antarctica prohibiting the testing of all weapons, nuclear explosions, and even radioactive materials.

This treaty is open to any member of the United Nations, and its headquarters is located in Buenos Aires Argentina.

In the third place in the decade in question, December 30, 1959 establishing the Inter-American Development Bank to fund a viable economic development projects, social and institutional environment and promote regional trade integration in the area of Latin America and the Caribbean.

The Inter-American Development Bank contributes to socioeconomic development in Latin America and the Caribbean through its lending operations, leadership in regional initiatives, research and dissemination of knowledge, institutions and programs. Moreover, countries that finance such projects, are countries such as the European Union, United States, Canada, Japan, Israel, Croatia,

Slovenia, Korea, Norway and Switzerland. Note that Cuba is marginalized by the body.

During the Sixties

During this decade, first mention that on 14 d December 1960 establishing the Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development which aims to coordinate economic and social policies of its members seeking help monitor, through research and studies, key factors in the economic translated into statistics related to: macroeconomics, trade, education, development, science and innovation.

This body seeks inter alia to promote employment, economic growth and improved living standards in member countries and maintain stability, to help economic expansion in the development process both in member countries as those outside the organization, expand multilateral trade without discriminatory criteria in line with international commitments.

It also aims to develop instruments of global application through the issuance of decisions and recommendations for member countries.

Some of the countries with large economies and that we still are members of this body are China, Russia, Brazil and India.

In addition, during the second decade of the sixties, it is important to note the creation on August 5, 1963 the Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty Atmospheric, Space and Underwater.

The purpose of this treaty is to ban nuclear weapons testing obliging si
gnatories to this agreement to prevent, prohibit and to refrain from any nuclear explosion in the atmosphere, space, underwater, or any other environment if such explosion causes damage and that radioactivity outside the territory of the country that performs. Some nations that have not ratified this treaty are North Korea,

India, Iraq, Cuba, Dominica, Pakistan, Syria, Saudi Arabia and other children, making a total of 63 countries which have not joined this treaty.

During the Seventies

As momentous because of the leadership group that represents members of that group, we highlight the creation on November 1, 1975 the current group of 8, which were the original five original countries and these were the United States, Japan, United Kingdom, France and Germany.

Then joined Canada, Italy and Russia.

The aim of this group is to meet every year in one of the member states to discuss the state of politics and international economy and attempt to define guidelines for the purpose of promoting an efficient political and economic system worldwide, because to its position of leadership and hegemony of this group of countries, in short, managing globalization.

Some nations that are not yet members of this forum and are important in the world, it is mainly China and India.

During the Eighties.

In this decade we emphasize the creation of two important documents worldwide.

First, on September 16, 1987 establishing the Montreal Protocol with a view to halting the deterioration of the ozone layer in the atmosphere of the planet that has generated two holes, one at each pole of the earth.

This layer protects from ultraviolet radiation harmful to the ecosystem.

So, countries have signed this protocol commit to reduce by half the production of CFC, thus removing the holes in the ozone layer by 2050.

The protocol was designed in such a way that establishes performance phases according to scientific and technological studies to be carried out over the years on the issue.

According to these investigations, the protocol is adjusted or may even speed up some decisions in favor of preventing further deterioration of the ozone layer.

It seeks to identify substances that deplete the ozone layer and to regulate the emission of these substances and even banned.

In second place during the decade of the eighties, we note that the December 20, 1988 was carried out by the Convention Against Drug Trafficking.

The convention seeks to provide rules to reduce drug trafficking and prevent money laundering due to such operations, international cooperation on issues relating to the extradition of drug traffickers and their procedures.

Among other functions, the main correspond to regulate in matters relating to drug trafficking in the areas of: crimes and penalties, confiscation, extradition, mutual legal assistance, identification of substances frequently used in the illicit manufacture of narcotic drugs, establish measures to eradicate illicit cultivation of plants from which narcotics are removed, regular illicit traffic by sea and related to commercial carriers.

It should be noted that North Korea does not participate in the convention.

During the Nineties

In this decade we emphasize the transcendent performance of two protocols.

First, on October 4, 1991 establishing the Protocol to the Antarctic Treaty, which was prompted its creation due to deterioration caused by global warming and melting ice at the poles, there is a need for increased protection in the Antarctic environment and dependent ecosystems, strengthen the Antarctic Treaty, thus preventing the Antarctic become international discord.

Mainly considers the commitment of the signatories to: assess the impact of their activities in the Antarctic environment, conservation of Antarctic flora and fauna, disposal and waste treatment, prevention of marine pollution, and the administration and management protected areas in Antarctica.

The protocol seeks to create commitment for all signatory nations to regulate their activities in the area, ensuring minimizing any environmental impact, complementing the Antarctic Treaty without modifying or amending it.

In second place during the nineties, 11 November 1997 establishing the Kyoto Protocol, which aims to achieve the commitment of nations to limit or reduce emissions of greenhouse gases in order to mitigate the negative effects of climate change that is showing from the second half of the twentieth century.

The protocol aims to develop policies and measures, inter alia, the promotion of energy efficiency, improving the deposition of greenhouse gases not controlled by the Montreal Protocol, the promotion of sustainable agricultural methods, research of new sources renewable energy, promoting policies that reduce the emission of greenhouse gases in general and not covered by other similar agreements as the Montreal Protocol.

Some nations that are not yet members of this protocol and that it is important to commit to signing it are Australia and the United States.

During the first decade of the twenty-first century

As an international institution, we noted that the July 1, 2002 starts the operation of the Statute establishing the International Criminal Court.

The reason for its creation was to achieve the establishment of an international court to prosecute crimes such as genocide, ensuring that major crimes will not go unpunished.

Among its objectives, this agency is primarily: to achieve justice for all nations, to combat impunity, to help resolve conflicts between nations, to remedy the shortcomings of the existing courts in the nation, enforce the criminal justice when instances of nations are not competent.

Some nations that are not yet members of this body and which are global players are among others: Cuba, China, North Korea, Iran, Iraq, United States, Japan, Egypt, Pakistan, India and Russia.

Conclusion

As you can see, mankind has worked well in terms of world peace and security among other things considering issues related to the financing of the poor and developing nations, creating organizations that promote trade and development of nations, promoting care of the ecosystem due to natural phenomena that occurred in recent years, and creating specialized organizations to combat social problems and phenomena that arise in the course of human history such as drug addiction.

Even so, today we see that all this group of organisms has not been as effective as it was desired to have the time of the creation, since among other issues, there is still much to be done on: world peace, the eradication of poverty, controlling the use of atomic energy, eco-care, fairness in world trade, illiteracy and lack of access to studies by a large population of the world, and management of social phenomena as drug and are now well known effect of global terrorism.

In conclusion, the “History” to humanity today requires more than an effort made so far towards an efficient global organization to achieve the common good, with a view to bringing into books, newspapers, magazines and publications, history full of victories surrounded by peace and prosperity for mankind.